Menelik II
Emperor of Ethiopia
Menelik II (17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), baptised as Sahle Maryam was king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death in 1913. At the height of his internal power and external prestige, the process of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state was largely completed by 1898. The Ethiopian Empire was transformed under Menelik: the major signposts of modernisation were put in place, with the assistance of key ministerial advisors. Externally, Menelik led Ethiopian troops against Italian invaders in the First Italo-Ethiopian War; following a decisive victory at the Battle of Adwa, recognition of Ethiopia's independence by external powers was expressed in terms of diplomatic representation at his court and delineation of Ethiopia's boundaries with the adjacent kingdoms. Menelik expanded his realm to the south and east, into Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or peoples. Later in his reign, Menelik established the first Cabinet of Ministers to help in the administration of the Empire, appointing trusted and widely respected nobles and retainers to the first Ministries. These ministers would remain in place long after his death, serving in their posts through the brief reign of Lij Iyasu (whom they helped depose) and into the reign of Empress Zewditu.
Chewa were the feudal noble warrior class of Imperial Ethiopia. Originally recruited and appointed for service in the Emperor's army, they formed a class of professional soldiers also known for traditional warriorhood practices and a rich cultural background. They were allocated with land grants for their sustainement. Their installation in settlements were instrumental in creating the nucleus of urban centers as well as the land tenure system through Ethiopia and Eritrea. By the early 20th century, scholars could identify 66 villages in Eritrea with a Chewa settlement origin. Multiple locations, such as Jan Amora, were named after prestigious Chewa regiments. In medieval Ethiopia, from the reign of Amde Tseyon, Chewa regiments, or legions, formed the backbone of the Empire's military forces. The Ge’ez term for these regiments is sewa while the Amharic term is cäwa. Earlier Axumite sources refer to sarawit (sing sarwe) as the name for the regiments, each sarawit being headed by a negus (nägästa säräwit). In late sources, from Zemene Mesafint onwards, regional levies under a noble are referred to as wa'alyan of nobles. Although the origins of several Chewa Regiments (such as Jan Amora) predate the establishment of Yekuno Amlak's dynasty,[citation needed] their real development occurred mostly under the latter, as well as Amda Seyon I, Baeda Maryam I and Zara Yaqob. The normal size of a regiment was
several thousand men. Each regiment was allocated a fief (Gult), to ensure its upkeep ensured by the land revenue. In 1445, following the Battle of Gomit, the chronicles record that Emperor Zara Yacoq started garrisoning the provinces with Chewa regiments. Major divisions of the military were : Regiments at the court, under high court officials; Regiments in the provinces, under regional Rases or other officials; Regiments in border regions, or more autonomous provinces, such as Hadiya, Bahir Negash, Bale, under azmac who were military officials appointed by the king. Medieval Ethiopia was a highly militaristic nation based on a system of ethnic regiments known as sewa in Geʽez. This practice can be traced back to the beginning of the Aksumite period, when the men of newly subjugated tribes were forced to become soldiers for the king of Aksum, commanded by a tributary who was likely a local chief. The regiments were given a plot of land called a gult in exchange for their military service. Merid Wolde Aregay suggests, based on Christopher Ehret's linguistic theories, that the origin of Aksumite rule itself may have been through the subjugation of Agaw agriculturalists by Geʽez-speaking pastoralists. These regiments were instrumental in maintaining Aksumite sovereignty over the trade routes within its empire; however, due to the decentralized nature of the regiments, chiefs could easily rebel against the king. The regimental system continued through the Middle Ages, but by the Zagwe era they consisted of professional soldiers. In the Solomonic era, during the reign of Zara Yaqob, this professionalism was reflected in the Amharic term cäwa, as ṣewa carried a connotation of slavery which was no longer accurate. The classic weapons of antiquity and medieval Ethiopia where the curved sword (shotel), the spear (tor). Distance weaponry such as bows and javelins (armah) were practised. Armour, such as coat of mails, was also well known. Firearms became more widespread under the reign of Dawit II. Matchlocks, light artillery, being introduced at this period. The Chewa acquired proficiency in weapon use from their young age, being trained from their childhood with games such as Akandura (Darts) and Gena (Field hockey) which figurated combats. Hunting (Aden) traditions played an important role in the upbringing of a Chewa warrior. The killings of wild beasts were rewarded by the patron, or Mekwuanint, to whom the Chewa belonged to. An elephant killer would for example hence wear a silver chain around his neck, a gold earring in his right ear. A rhineceros killer would be awarded a cross earring, and a gold chain with silk threads for his neck. Along with these jewellery gifts, prizes of weaponry were also frequent.
The Ethiopian Empire, historically known as Abyssinia or simply Ethiopia, was a sovereign state that encompassed the present-day territories of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It existed from the establishment of the Solomonic dynasty by Yekuno Amlak around 1270 until the 1974 coup d'état by the Derg, which ended the reign of the final Emperor, Haile Selassie. In the late 19th century, under Emperor Menelik II, the empire expanded significantly to the south, and in 1952, Eritrea was federated under Selassie's rule. Despite being surrounded by hostile forces throughout much of its history, the empire maintained a kingdom centered on its ancient Christian heritage. Founded in 1270 by Yekuno Amlak, who claimed to descend from the last Aksumite king and ultimately King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, it replaced the Agaw kingdom of the Zagwe. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the Empire managed to expand significantly under the crusades of Amda Seyon I (1314–1344) and Dawit I (1382–1413), temporarily becoming the dominant force in the Horn of Africa. The Ethiopian Empire would reach its peak during the long reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob (1434–1468). He consolidated the
conquests of his predecessors, built numerous churches and monasteries, encouraged literature and art, centralized imperial authority by substituting regional warlords with administrative officials, and significantly expanded his hegemony over adjacent Islamic territories. The neighboring Muslim Adal Sultanate began to threaten the empire by repeatedly attempting to invade it, finally succeeding under Imam Mahfuz. Mahfuz's ambush and defeat by Emperor Lebna Dengel brought about the early 16th-century jihad of the Ottoman-supported Adalite Imam Ahmed Gran, who was defeated in 1543 with the help of the Portuguese. Greatly weakened, much of the Empire's southern territory and vassals were lost due to the Oromo migrations. In the north, in what is now Eritrea, Ethiopia managed to repulse Ottoman invasion attempts, although losing its access to the Red Sea to them. Reacting to these challenges, in the 1630s Emperor Fasilides founded the new capital of Gondar, marking the start of a new golden age known as the Gondarine period. It saw relative peace, the successful integration of the Oromo and a flourishing of culture. With the deaths of Emperor Iyasu II (1755) and Iyoas I (1769) the realm eventually entered a period of decentralization, known as the Zemene Mesafint where regional warlords fought for power, with the emperor being a mere puppet. Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868) put an end to the Zemene Mesafint, reunified the Empire and led it into the modern period before dying during the British Expedition to Abyssinia. His successor Yohannes IV engaged primarily in war and successfully fought the Egyptians and Mahdists before dying against the latter in 1889. Emperor Menelik II, now residing in Addis Ababa, subjugated many peoples and kingdoms in what is now western, southern, and eastern Ethiopia, like Kaffa, Welayta, Harar, and other kingdoms. Thus, by 1898 Ethiopia expanded into its modern territorial boundaries. In the northern region, he confronted Italy's expansion. Through a resounding victory over the Italians at the Battle of Adwa in 1896, utilizing modern imported weaponry, Menelik ensured Ethiopia's independence and confined Italy to Eritrea. Later, after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Benito Mussolini's Italian Empire occupied Ethiopia and established Italian East Africa, merging it with neighboring Eritrea and the Italian Somaliland colonies to the south-east.
Awards: Collar, sash and star of the Imperial Order of Solomon, star of the Order of the Seal of Solomon, insignia and star of the Order of Saint Anthony.
